The Revolt of the Six Garrisons (liuzhen qiyi 六鎮起義)

The Revolt of the Six Garrisons 六鎮起義 was a large-scale military revolt that critically shook the fundaments of the Northern Wei dynasty.

Before Emperor Xiaowen 魏孝文帝 transferred the capital from Pingcheng 平城 (close to present-day Datong 大同, Shanxi) to Luoyang 洛陽 farther south, the northern frontier against the steppe region had to be defended against the federation of the Rouran 柔然, but also to Turkish tribes living within Wei territory, like the Gaoche 高車 (Chile 敕勒) or the Mountain Hu 山胡. For military protection, the Northern Wei established a series of garrisons along the northern border, namely Huaihuang 懷荒 (Zhangbei 張北, Hebei), Rouxuan 柔玄 (Xinghe 興和, Inner Mongolia) Fuming 撫冥(Siziwang Banner 四子王旗, Inner Mongolia), Wuchuan 武川 (Wuchuan, Inner Mongolia), Huaishuo 懷朔 (Guyang 固陽, Inner Mongolia), and Woye 沃野 (Wuyuan 五原, Inner Mongolia). These were the Northern Garrisons (beizhen 北鎮) or six garrisons (liuzhen 六鎮). There was later a further garrison added, Yuyi 御夷 (Chicheng 赤城, Hebei). The territory around the garrisons was not administered as civilian commanderies, but stood directly under the control of the military units, with the inhabitants of the region called „garrison people“ (zhenmin 鎮民). They were registered as „garrison households“ (fuhu 府戶) or military households and were expected to produce soldiers for many generations. The majority of them were Xianbei 鮮卑 people from the Taghbach 拓跋 tribe, thus having a high status in the social hierarchy of the Northern Wei empire. But in the course of time, more Chinese people and such of other ethnic origins were settled down in the border regions. A third group of settlers were delinquents being banished by military service in the border region. As a result, the social status of the border people as a whole began to decline, all the more after the political and economic centre of the empire was shifted to Luoyang in the south, and the ruling elite of the Taghbach increasingly sinified, i.e., adopted Chinese customs and lost those of the Xianbei. In addition to this, the military significance of the northern border decreased. In the early 6th century, the wealth gap between the residents of the northern garrisons and the south widened significantly. The officers of these military garrisons were discontent because they were unable to get higher positions in the imperial centre. Moreover, officers seized land of the garrison families, burdened them with heavy corvée labour for both official and private purposes. Last, but not least, the people in the empire’s south looked down on the northerners. Residents in the northern garrisons who came from ethnic groups maintained connections with their kin living within the frontier. The Shanhu had long resided in the regions west of the Fen River 汾河 and northern Shaanxi. The Shanhu who were registered in the household system were subject to taxes and corvée labor, while those outside the jurisdiction of the Northern Wei empire remained under the authority of their tribal chiefs. They were not to deliver taxes and corvée, but were often recruited by the Wei for militar purposes. The Gaoche were divided into eastern and western groups and retained their tribal structures. They lived in the frontier areas near the Six Garrisons and were obligated to provide military service and tribute to the Northern Wei government. The government appointed Gaoche and Shanhu chieftains as tribal leaders or other officials to govern their unregistered kinsmen. These Türkic tribes had thus a complex relationship with the Northern Wei government, marked by both conflict and shared interests. In 523, the residents of Huaihuang Garrison, enraged that their commander, Yu Jing 于景, refused to distribute grain from the granary, killed him and rebelled. Soon after, Polouhan Baling 破六韓拔陵, a resident of Woye Garrison, gathered a crowd, killed the garrison commander, seized control of the garrison, and proclaimed a new reign title, Zhenwang ("True King") 真王. He then led his army southward and dispatched a separate commander, Wei Kegu 衛可孤, to besiege Wuchuan and attack Huaishuo. In response, Yang Jun 楊鈞, the commander of Huaishuo, promoted the powerful local noble Heba Dubo 賀拔度拔 of Wuchuan and his sons Yun, Sheng, and Yue 允、勝、岳, to military commanders, giving them command to fight the mutineers. In 524, the Northern Wei court sent Yuan Yu to suppress Baling’s rebellion. However, Wei Kegu captured both Wuchuan and Huaishuo, taking Heba Dubo and his sons prisoner. In summer, Baling defeated Yuan Yu at Wuyuan. The court then appointed Li Chong 李崇 to replace Yuan Yu as Grand Commander of the Northern Expedition 北討大都督, with Cui Xian 崔暹and Yuan Yuan元淵 as deputy generals. In July, Baling inflicted a major defeat on Cui Xian at Baidao 白道, forcing Li Chong to retreat and defend Yunzhong 云中. By August, both the eastern and western divisions of the Gaoche rebelled against the Wei and joined forces with Baling, greatly strengthening the rebel army. In response, Emperor Xiaoming issued an edict converting garrisons into regular provinces 州, in an attempt to pacify the unrest. In Xiurong秀容, a man named Qifu Moyu 乞伏莫于led a rebellion, attacking and killing the local commandery governor. In southern Xiurong 南秀容, another figure, Muzi Wanyu Qizhen 牧子萬于乞真, killed the Minister of the Imperial Stables 太仆卿, also rebelling. These uprisings were suppressed by the Xianbei-Qihu tribal leader Erzhu Rong 秀容契胡酋長爾朱榮, who was based in Xiurong. In the tenth month, Li Chong was removed from office, and Yuan Yuan took over overall military affairs. Around the same time, Heba Dubo and his sons, along with Yuwen Gong 宇文肱 from Wuchuan, rallied local powerful clans and ambushed Wei Kegu, killing him. At the beginning of the first year of Xiaochang (525), the Rouran khan Anagui阿那瓌 led an army of 100,000 from west of Wuchuan toward Woye to help the Northern Wei suppress Polouhan Baling’s uprising. In June, Baling laid siege to Yuan Yuan in Wuyuan, forcing him to flee north to Shuozhou 朔州(formerly Huaishuo Garrison). Meanwhile, Fei Mu 費穆, Inspector of Yunzhou, abandoned Yunzhong and fled to Erzhu Rong in Xiurong. Yuan Yuan then sent Yu Jin 于謹 to negotiate the surrender of Mieliehe 乜列河, a western Gaoche chieftain who had already joined the rebellion, bringing him back to the Wei side. Anagui defeated Baling at Wuyuan, and Baling's top general, Polouhan Kongque 破六韓孔雀, was killed in battle. Forced to retreat south, Baling's forces were caught in a pincer attack by Anagui and Yuan Yuan. Out of his 200,000-strong army, a large portion surrendered to Yuan Yuan, resulting in a decisive defeat for Baling. The Northern Wei government relocated the surrendered households to Ji, Ding, and Ying prefectures (modern-day Jixian, Dingxian, and Hejian in Hebei province) 冀(今河北冀縣)、定(今河北定縣)、瀛(今河北河間)三州 for resettlement and food relief. However, within a few months, new uprisings broke out again in the Hebei region 河北. In the same year, in August, 杜洛周 Du Luozhou (also recorded as Tujin Luozhou 吐斤洛周), a soldier from Rouxuan Garrison, gathered displaced people from the northern garrisons and rebelled in Shanggu 上谷 (present-day Yanqing 延慶, Beijing), continuing to use the reign title of the "True King. 真王" He led his forces westward and besieged Yanzhou 燕州 (present-day Zhuolu 涿鹿, Hebei). In December, Luozhou arrived at Huangguadui 黃瓜堆 and defeated Hulü Jin 斛律金, a Gaoche chieftain who had surrendered to the Wei dynasty. In the second year of the Xiaochang era, Luozhou attacked and broke through the Wei forces guarding the Jundu 軍都 and Juyong 居庸 passes, then moved south to Youzhou 幽州. In November, the people of Fanyang 范陽 captured the Youzhou governor Wang Yannian 王延年. The acting Commissioner Chang Jing 行臺常景 responded to the righteous army, and Luozhou took control of both Yan and You prefectures. In the second year of Du Luozhou’s uprising in Shanggu, former soldiers from Huaihuo Garrison—led by Xianyu Xiuli 鮮于修禮and others—rallied displaced people from the northern garrisons and rose in rebellion at Zuoren City左人城 in Dingzhou 定州(present-day west of Tang County 唐縣, Hebei). They proclaimed a new reign title, Luxing 魯興, and marched their forces toward Zhongshan 中山 (present-day Ding County 定縣, Hebei). The Wei court appointed Yang Jin 楊津 as the governor and acting commissioner of Dingzhou to defend Zhongshan 定州刺史、行臺，守中山, and also dispatched Zhangsun Zhi 長孫稚along with Yuan Chen, the Prince of Hejian 河間王元琛, to provide reinforcements. In April, Xiuli dealt a major defeat to Zhangsun Zhi and his forces. In May, Wei again appointed Yuan Yuan as Grand Commander 大都督, tasking him with leading Yuan Rong 元融and Pei Yan 裴衍to reinforce the defence. However, in August, an internal traitor, Yuan Hongye 元宏業, assassinated Xiuli. Xiuli’s officer Ge Rong 葛榮 executed the traitor and took command of the righteous forces, continuing the resistance. In September, Ge Rong advanced toward Yingzhou 瀛州, defeated Yuan Rong 元融, the Wei Left Army Commander 左軍都督, and captured and killed Yuan Yuan. Morale among the rebel forces soared. Ge Rong then declared himself emperor, established the state of Qi 齊, and adopted a new reign title: Guang'an 廣安. After Xianyu Xiuli rose in rebellion at Zuoren City, displaced people from Hengzhou 恒州and Shuozhou responded one after another. In the second lunar month, Hulü Luoyang 斛律洛陽, a chieftain of the western Gaoche, launched an uprising west of the Sanggan River 桑乾 and allied with the Feiyetou 費也頭pastoral leader Muzi 費也頭牧子. In the fourth month, Xianyu Ahu 鮮于阿胡, a resident of Shuozhou, seized the city and rebelled. Houlü Luoyang and Muzi were suppressed by Erzhu Rong, while Ahu led the displaced population southward and, in the seventh month, captured Pingcheng. Erzhu Rong retaliated by launching a surprise attack on Sizhou 肆州, killed the cishi, and captured Heba Sheng 賀拔勝. Taking advantage of the Wei army’s defeat, Rong actively recruited northern garrison chieftains and powerful local clans. He appointed Yue岳 and Sheng 勝as separate commanders, and his military strength grew day by day. In the first month of the third year of the Xiaochang era, Ge Rong defeated the powerful Zhao commandery 趙郡noble Li Yuanzhong 李元忠and captured Yinzhou 殷州 (present-day east of Longyao 隆堯, Hebei), then advanced to besiege Jizhou 冀州. In the seventh month, Yuan Jian 元鑒, the governor of Xiangzhou 相州, rebelled against the Wei dynasty at Ye 鄴 and surrendered to Ge Rong. In the eighth month, the Wei court sent Yuan Ziyong 源子邕 and Pei Yan 裴衍 to attack Ye and executed Yuan Jian. They then continued their campaign to confront Ge Rong. In the eleventh month, Ge Rong captured Xindu信都 and took prisoner the Jizhou governor, Prince Yuan Fu of the Wei imperial clan 魏宗室元老元孚, along with more than 500 local elites, including Pan Shao 潘紹. In the twelfth month, Ge Rong defeated Yuan Ziyong, Pei Yan, and others, and advanced to besiege Ye City. In 528, Li Yi 李裔, the Chief Clerk of Dingzhou, surrendered Zhongshan and captured the governor Yang Jin; Yuan Ning 元寧, the governor of Yingzhou 瀛州 (oben?), also surrendered his city. Ge Rong now controlled Jizhou, Dingzhou, and Yingzhou. The powerful Hejian clan 河間led by Xing Gao 邢杲, who was based in Mo City 鄚城, and the warlord Gao Qian 高乾, who was based in Bohai 勃海, each led over 100,000 households of their followers and kin to flee southward. In the second month, Ge Rong killed Du Luozhou and absorbed his forces. In the third month, he captured Cangzhou 滄州. By this time, Ge Rong had taken control of seven provinces—Yan, You, Ji (冀), Ding, Ying, Yin, and Cang—surrounded Ye City in the south, and threatened Bing 并and Si Prefectures肆 in the west. His military power was at its peak. While Ge Rong’s rebel forces were expanding, the power of Erzhu Rong was also rapidly growing. Powerful clans from Huaihuo, including Gao Huan 高歡, Duan Rong 段榮, Yu Jing 尉景, and Cai Jun 蔡儁, first turned against Du Luozhou, then betrayed Ge Rong, and defected to Xiurong (Erzhu Rong’s base). Erzhu Rong valued Gao Huan highly and often consulted him on military strategy. Yuan Tianmu 元天穆, the governor of Bingzhou 并州, colluded with Erzhu Rong and encouraged him to seize Luoyang. In 528, in the third month, Erzhu Rong used the poisoning of Emperor Xiaoming by Empress Dowager Hu 胡太后 as a pretext and led troops from Jinyang 晉陽 toward Luoyang, reaching Heyin 河陰. In the fourth month, he installed Yuan Ziyou 元子攸 as emperor, drowned the Empress Dowager in the Yellow River, and massacred more than 2,000 court officials. With Erzhu Rong, a chieftain of the Qihu people 契胡酋長, at the helm, the powerful northern garrison aristocrats and tribal leaders effectively seized control of the Northern Wei regime—an event known as the Rebellion of the Erzhu Clan. In the seventh month, Ge Rong laid siege to Ye, with his forces claimed to number a million. In the ninth month, Erzhu Rong led elite cavalry out from Fukou 滏口 (present-day northwest of Cixian 磁縣, Hebei) and engaged Ge Rong’s army in a decisive battle. Erzhu Rong sent Hou Jing as the vanguard, and Gao Huan worked to persuade enemy troops to surrender at the front lines. Ge Rong underestimated his enemy. Erzhu Rong launched a surprise attack, coordinating a pincer movement from both front and rear. Ge Rong’s army was defeated, and he was captured. His forces scattered, and the Qihu (契胡) tribes took control of the remaining troops, dividing them under their command. In the tenth month, Ge Rong was executed in Luoyang. In the twelfth month, Ge Rong’s remaining forces, led by Han Lou 韓樓, rose in rebellion at Ji City 薊城. Erzhu Rong appointed Heba Sheng 賀拔勝 as Grand Commander大都督 and stationed him in Zhongshan to guard against Han Lou. In 529, in the ninth month, Erzhu Rong dispatched Hou Yuan 侯淵 to suppress Han Lou. Han Lou abandoned Ji City and fled, but was captured and killed during his escape. With this, the Six Garrisons Rebellion came to an end. From the uprising of the Huaihuang garrison residents in the fourth year of the Zhengguang era (523) to the suppression of Han Lou in the second year of Yong'an (529), the garrison soldiers and displaced people of the Six Garrisons maintained armed resistance for six years. At its peak under Ge Rong’s leadership, the rebel army was said to number a million, occupying seven prefectures in Hebei—making it the largest armed uprising in the final years of the Northern Wei dynasty. As early as the beginning of the Six Garrisons Rebellion (in the fifth year of the Zhengguang era, 524), various ethnic groups in the Guanzhong and Longyou regions—including the Di, Qiang, and Hu—also rose in revolt. In Gaoping Garrison 高平鎮 (present-day Guyuan 固原, Ningxia), Hu Chen 胡琛took up arms, while in Qin and Southern Qin 南秦州Prefectures (present-day southeastern Gansu), the Qiang leader Mozhe Dati 莫折大提 also launched a rebellion. Their forces were relatively strong. Mozhe Dati and his son Niansheng 念生quickly expanded their power, reaching north to Gaoping, west to Fuhan and Guzang 枹罕、姑臧, east to Qizhou岐州, and south to Dongyi 東益. After Niansheng suffered setbacks, he merged his forces with Hu Chen’s. They later came under the command of Wanqu Chounu 萬俟丑奴. This joint rebel force—made up primarily of garrison troops and city dwellers from the mountain Hu, Qiang, and Di peoples—marched eastward into Qinlong 秦隴, capturing Binyang 豳, Xia 夏, Jing 涇, Qi 岐, and Beihua 北華 Prefectures. At one point, they even occupied Tong Pass 潼關, in support of Ge Rong’s uprising. Ultimately, however, the movement was crushed in the first year of the Putai era (531).