ChinaKnowledge.de -
An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History and Literature
Tripiṭaka, literally meaning "three baskets", is a common term for a "complete" collection of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese equivalent is dazangjing, with the word zang (a special reading) meaning "storehouse", corresponding to the Sanskrit word piṭaka. The three "baskets" or "storehouses" consist of collections of sūtras or sermons (called jing 經 in Chinese), vinayas or monastic rules (Ch. lü 律), and abhidharmas or treatises (Ch. lun 論). In the Hīnayāna (Theravada) context, the term Tripitaka usually refers to the Pali Canon, which comprises texts written in the Pali language. In this collection, the Vinaya rules are placed first, emphasising the importance of ordination in Theravada Buddhism, contrasting with Mahāyāna Buddhism, where laypeople and their salvation hold greater significance. The Chinese Tripitaka (general term Dazangjing 大藏經) includes texts either translated from Sanskrit originals or directly composed in Chinese. It was created, reproduced and revised in many different versions described below. Part of them were created in Korea and Japan.
The Tripitaka was also translated into other languages, foremost Tibetan. The Tibetan Tripitaka is based on the Pali Canon. It consists of two parts, the Kanjur (Ti. bKa'-'gyur), and the Tanjur (Ti. bsTan-'gyur). The Derge (Ti. sDe-dge) edition contains 4,569 works. In addition to sutras, vinaya, and treatises, it also includes works on grammar, poetry, art, logic, astronomy, calendrical science, medicine, and crafts. Among these is large proportion of tantric scriptures and treatises not found in the Chinese Tripitaka. The earliest version was compiled between 1313 and 1320. The Tibetan Tripitaka in turn served for the translations into Mongolian. There were four versions of the Mongolian Tripitaka (Ch. Mengwen dazangjing 蒙文大藏經, Mo. Yeke Ganjur), the first one created between 1297 and 1307, the second one in the late Ming period 明 (1368-1644), the third one in 1683, and the last one in 1749. In 1773, the Qianlong Emperor 乾隆帝 (r. 1736-1795) had 699 texts from the Kanjur chosen and translated into Manchu. This abbreviated version, the Manchu Tripitaka (Manwen dazangjing 滿文大藏經, Ma. Manju daicing ganjur), was printed in 1790, with 108 cases and 2,535 juan.
| 1–151 | 阿含部 | Āgama Sūtras |
| 152–219 | 本緣部 | Jātaka Sūtras |
| 220–261 | 般若部 | Prajñā-pāramitā Sutras |
| 262–277 | 法華部 | Saddharma-puṇḍarīka Sutras |
| 278–309 | 華嚴部 | Avataṃsaka Sutras |
| 310–373 | 寶積部 | Ratnakūṭa Sutras |
| 374–396 | 涅槃部 | Nirvāṇa Sutras |
| 397-424 | 大集部 | Mahāsannipāta Sutras |
| 425-847 | 經集部 | Sūtrasannipāta Sutras |
| 848–1420 | 密教部 | Tantra or Esoteric Sutras |
| 律部 | Vinayas (monastic rules) | |
| 1505–1535 | 釋經論部 | Sūtravyākaraṇa Scriptures |
| 1536–1563 | 毗曇部 | Abhidharma Scriptures |
| 1564–1578 | 中觀部 | Mādhyamaka Scriptures |
| 1579–1627 | 瑜伽部類 | Yogācāra Scriptures |
| 1628–1692 | 論集部 | Śāstras (treatises) |
| 1693–1803 | 經疏部 | Sūtravibhāṣa (subcommentaries on the sūtras) |
| 1804–1815 | 律疏部 | Vinayavibhāṣa (subcommentaries on the vinayas) |
| 1816–1850 | 論疏部 | Śāstravibhāṣa (subcommentaries on the śāstras) |
| 1851–2025 | 諸宗部 | Sarvasamaya Scriptures (various schools) |
| 2026–2120 | 史傳部 | History |
| 2121–2136 | 事彙部 | Encyclopaedias |
| 2137–2144 | 外教部 | Scriptures of other religions referring to Buddhism |
| 2145-2184 | 目錄部 | Book Catalogues |
| 2185–2700 | 續經疏部 | Continued commentaries |
| 2701–2731 | 悉曇部 | Esoteric exts in the Siddhaṃ script |
| 2732–2864 | 古逸部 | Ancient texts |
| 2865–2920 | 疑似部 | Doubtful texts |
| 圖像部 | Images, charts, diagrams, mantras | |
| 昭和法寶總目錄 | Index of the Shōwa reign-era |
According to the bibliographical chapter Jingji zhi 經籍志 in the official dynastic history Suishu 隋書 and the Buddhist book catalogue Lidai sanbao ji 歷代三寶記, Emperor Wu 梁武帝 (r. 502-549) of the Liang dynasty 梁 (502-557) in 515 gathered Buddhist scriptures and commissioned the monk Sengshao 僧紹 (413-483) to compile the catalogue Zhongjing mulu 眾經目錄, which was later revised and finalised by Baochang 寶唱 (fl. 505). Their work resulted in a collection of 1,433 texts in 3,741 juan (scrolls or fascicles). This is regarded as the first recorded instance of Buddhist scriptures being compiled into what would become the Tripitaka.
More than a decade later, during the Northern Wei Empire 北魏 (386-534), Emperor Xiaowu 魏孝武帝 (r. 532–534) ordered the reorganisation of the imperial collection of scriptures. He commissioned Li Kuo 李廓 to compile the catalogue Weishi zhongjing mulu 魏世眾經目錄, which consisted of 427 texts in 2,053 juan.
Prior to this, in 374, Dao'an 道安 (312-385) compiled the catalogue Zongli zhongjing mulu 綜理眾經目錄, and in the Liu-Song empire 劉宋 (420-479) in southern China, another catalogue called Zhongjing mulu, was produced. However, these earlier works only listed scriptures without organising the full texts into an organised canon. Furthermore, both of these early catalogues have long been lost, as have the catalogues compiled by Sengshao, Baochang, and Li Kuo, aside from a few fragmentary records that allow reconstructing aspects of the process by which Buddhist scriptures were compiled into a canon.
From the Southern and Northern Dynasties 南北朝 (300~600) through the Tang period 唐 (618-907), as the number of translated Buddhist scriptures steadily increased, catalogues of the canon appeared one after another, totalling more than twenty works. Today, aside from ten complete catalogues from the Tang period that still survive, two Sui-period 隋 (581-618) catalogues have been lost; all three from the Northern Wei and Northern Qi 北齊 (550-577) empires have disappeared; and of the five from the Liang empire, only one remains.
Among these catalogues, the most scholarly and valuable for reference are considered to be the Chu sanzang jiji 出三藏記集 compiled by Sengyou 僧祐 (445-518), the Lidai sanbao ji by Fei Changfang 費長房 (597), and the Kaiyuan shijiao lu 開元釋教錄 compiled by Zhisheng 智昇 (730). The latter draws extensively on the strengths of earlier catalogues, correcting their omissions and errors, and is renowned for its rigorous compilation, detailed records, and careful editing. In particular, its abridged edition, Kaiyuan shijiao lu lüechu 開元釋教錄略出, was the first to arrange entries according to the sequence of the "Thousand-character classic" Qianziwen 千字文, making consultation and retrieval more convenient. Its cataloging method later served as the model for nearly all printed editions of the Buddhist Canon.
According to statistics, from the time of Emperor Wu 陳武帝 (r. 557-559) of the Chen dynasty 陳 (557-589) to the end of the Xianqing reign-period 顯慶 (656-660) of the Tang dynasty, the imperial court and private individuals produced more than 800 complete sets of the canon, amounting to over two million juan. However, only a very small number of these have survived to the present day, and a considerable portion has been brought overseas. In recent years, many ancient manuscript scriptures have been discovered in Xinjiang and other Central Asian regions.
During the Five Dynasties 五代 (907-960) and the early Song 宋 (960-1279) period, woodblock printing began to flourish, and the first editions of Buddhist scriptures printed using woodblocks appeared. From 971, when Emperor Taizu 宋太祖 (r. 960-975) ordered officials Gao Pin 高品 and Zhang Congxin 張從信 to carve and print the first complete Buddhist canon in Yizhou 益州 (present-day Chengdu 成都, Sichuan), until the end of the Yuan period 元 (1279-1368), it is believed that more than twenty different sets of woodblocks for the canon had been produced.
The carving of the so-called Kaibao Canon (Kaibao zang 開寶藏) began in the fourth year of the Kaibao reign-era (971) of the Northern Song 北宋 (960-1126) and was completed in 983, with a total of 130,000 woodblocks produced. Based on the catalogue of scriptures included in the Kaiyuan shijiao lu, the canon comprised 480 cases (zhi 帙), arranged according to the sequence of the Qianziwen, totalling 5,048 juan. Each printing block contained 23 lines, each consisting of 14 characters. At the top of each block were engraved the title of the scripture, the block number, the case number, and related information, while inscriptions indicating the cyclical date of carving appeared at the end of each scroll. The first complete printed edition of the canon was brought to Japan in 984 by the Japanese monk Chōnen 奝然 (938—1016).
Thereafter, it underwent three major rounds of collation and revision, while newly translated scriptures from the Song period and texts included in the catalogue Zhenyuan shijiao lu 貞元釋教錄 were continuously added, resulting in three different versions: The revises Xianping edition (Xianping xiuding ben 咸平修訂本), a recension carried out between 989 and the Xianping period (998–1003); the revised Tianxi edition (Tianxi xiuding ben 天禧修訂本), a recension completed in the early Tianxi period (1017–1021) – this version was in 1022 transmitted to the Kitan Liao empire 遼 (907-1125) in China's north and to the Korean state of Koryŏ (Ch. Gaoli 高麗); and the revised Xining edition (Xining xiuding ben 熙寧修訂本), a recension completed in the fourth year of the Xining era (1071), transmitted to Koryŏ in 1083. The Kaibao Canon was also repeatedly transmitted to the Việt empire (modern Vietnam), where individual scriptures were reproduced for local use. A complete reproduction of the Tripitaka was never projected in premodern Vietnam.
After the Xining period, new texts continued to be added. By the end of the Northern Song period, the Canon had expanded to 653 cases, comprising more than 6,628 juan. The Kaibao Canon is renowned for its elegant and disciplined calligraphy, as well as its superb engraving craftsmanship. The few surviving scrolls today were carved during the Kaibao reign-era and printed with great care on yellow hemp paper, the type used for official documents, making them among the finest examples of Song-period printing.
The Kitan Canon (Qidan zang 契丹藏), also known as the Liao Canon (Liaozang 遼藏), was likely first carved during the reign of Emperor Xingzong 遼興宗 (r. 1031-1054). Based on the Tianxi-edition of the Kaibao Canon, it included additional scriptures and treatises that were circulating in northern regions at the time, such as Huayanjing suipin zan 華嚴經隨品讚, Yiqie fo pusa ming ji 一切佛菩薩名集, Suiyuan wangsheng ji 隨願往生集, Shi mohe yanlun 釋摩訶衍論, Darijing yishi 大日經義釋, Darijing yishi yanmi chao 大日經義釋演秘鈔, or Shijiao zuishang sheng mimi zang tuoluoni ji 釋教最上乘秘密藏陀羅尼集. The carving of this canon took more than thirty years to complete. According to the Yangtaishan Qingshuiyuan chuangzao zangjing ji 陽臺山清水院創造藏經記, authored by Zhiyan 志延 in 1068, this canon comprised 579 cases. For a long time, no printed copies were known to have survived. It was not until 1978, during repairs to the Wooden Pagoda (Muta 木塔) of Yingxian 應縣 in Shanxi, that fifty fragmentary scrolls were discovered inside the structure. These scrolls are in illustrated scroll format, with each printing block containing 24 lines and each line ranging from 15 to 18 characters.
The Tangutan Tripitaka (Ch. Xixia wen dazangjing 西夏文大藏經) was completed in 1302, comprising more than 3,620 juan. According to existing records, over 140 sets were printed successively. However, no complete set survives today, and the printing blocks have also no longer exist. The extant fragments of sutras and treatises discovered in various places amount to only several dozen. The base text used for translating the Tangut Tripitaka was likely the revised Tianxi edition of the Kaibao Canon. In 1034, a printed copy of the Kaibao Canon was transmitted to the Western Xia empire 西夏 (1038-1227). Emperor Li Yuanhao 李元昊 (r. 1032-1048), built Gaotai Temple 高臺寺 in Xingqing Prefecture 興慶 to house it, and at the same time summoned Uyghur monks to translate it by using the newly created Tangut script. The translation work began in 1038 and was completed 1090, producing a total of 362 cases (zhi), 812 texts, in 3,579 juan. Between 1140 and 1193, the canon was re-collated based on the "Southern and Northern Canons" (Nanbeijing 南北經), likely referring to the Kaibao Canon, and the Kitan Canon.
In 1270, under Emperor Shizu 元世祖 (r. 1260-1294, i.e., Qubilai Qaɣan) of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, when the Tangutan empire was gone, the State Preceptor (guoshi 國師) Huashen Yixing 化身一行 presided over a renewed effort to collate the texts, translate scriptures that had not previously been rendered, and prepare a new edition of the Tripitaka for printing. However, after many years of work, the woodblocks had still not been completed. In 1293, Emperor Shizu ordered the official in charge of Buddhist affairs, Xibi Tuqing 西璧土情, to instruct the compilation team to deliver the older Tangut canon manuscripts to Wanshou Temple 萬壽寺 in Hangzhou 杭州, Zhejiang, for block carving and printing. The project was completed in 1302, after which ten sets of the canon were immediately printed and distributed. Later, in the 10th year of the Dade reign-period 大德 (1297-1307), Guan Zhuba 管主八 had more than thirty additional sets of the Tangut Tripitaka printed and distributed them to monasteries in Ningxia 寧夏 and Yongchang 永昌, both being prefectures with a predominantly Tangutan population. More sets were printed later under the supervision of Āyurparibhadra, who later became Emperor Renzong 元仁宗 (r. 1311-1320).
The Chongning Canon (Chongning zang 崇寧藏), produced at Eastern Chan Dengjue Monastery 東禪等覺禪院 in Fuzhou 福州 in today's Fujian province, was initiated through fundraising efforts led by the monastery's abbot Chongzhen 沖真. Carving commenced in 1080 and was completed in the third year of the Chongning era (1104). The canon comprised 580 cases, containing 1,440 texts across 6,108 juan. Notably, this edition was the first to adopt the accordion-fold (folded) binding format (zhezhuangshi zhuangzhen 摺裝式裝幀). Its layout featured 30 lines per block, folded into five half-pages, each half-page containing 6 lines with 17 characters per line. This format became highly influential: seven later editions of the Tripiṭaka followed this layout.
The Vairocana Canon (Pilu zang 毗盧藏) was created at Kaiyuan Monastery 開元寺 in Fuzhou. This edition of the Tripitaka was started through fundraising efforts by monks Benming 本明, Benwu 本悟, and Xingchong 行崇, with support from local lay patrons. Carving began in 1112 and finished in 1151. It consisted of 595 cases, containing 1,451 texts in 6,132 juan.
The Yuanjue Canon (Yuanjue zang 圓覺藏) is the Tripiṭaka of Yuanjue Chan Monastery 圓覺禪院 at Sixi 思溪 in Huzhou 湖州, Zhejiang. This edition of the canon was sponsored by Wang Yongcong 王永從 from Mizhou 密州, who, together with his entire family, made a vow to support its production. The monks Jingfan 淨梵, Zongjian 宗鑒, and Huaishen 懷深 took charge of fundraising and overseeing the carving. The engraving likely began in the late Northern Song period and was essentially completed in 1132. The canon comprised 548 cases. In total, it contained 1,435 texts in 5,480 juan. Afterward, sometime following the Chunyou era 淳祐 (1241-1252) of the Southern Song 南宋 (1127-1279), the printing blocks were relocated and preserved at Zifu Chan Monastery 資福禪寺.
The Zifu Canon (Zifu zang 資福藏) was produced at Fabao Zifu Chan Monastery 法寶資福禪寺 in Sixi. The exact date when carving began is unknown, but the canon was finished in 1175. It consists of 599 cases, containing 1,459 texts across 5,940 juan. The canon includes 51 more cases than the Yuanjue Canon. The two canons share the same layout, and their scriptures are mostly identical. Additionally, since the printing blocks of the Yuanjue Canon were later moved to Zifu Chan Monastery, distinguishing between the two editions is difficult. This has led to the view that the Zifu edition was created as an expanded version of the Yuanjue edition. Printed copies of both canons were gradually transmitted to Japan, where many temples acquired them. In the late Qing period 清 (1644-1911), Yang Shoujing 楊守敬 (1839-1915) purchased one such set (originally missing more than 600 juan) from Ten'an Monastery 天安寺 in Yamashiro Province 山城国. According to another account, it was acquired from Kanzan Monastery 菅山寺 in Ikago District 伊香郡, Ōmi Province 近江国. The set is now preserved in the Beijing Library (Beijing Tushuguan 北京圖書館).
In 1933, at Guangsheng Monastery in Huoshan 霍山, Zhaocheng 趙城, Shanxi, the so-called Zhaocheng Canon (Zhaocheng zang 趙城藏) or Jin Canon of Zhaocheng (Zhaocheng Jin zang 趙城金藏) was discovered. It was originally carved in the Jin empire 金 (1115-1234) in northern China through popular fundraising efforts at Tianning Monastery 天寧寺 in Xiezhou 解州 (present-day Yuncheng 運城, Shanxi). The project was initiated by Fazhen 法珍, the daughter of Cui Jin 崔進 of Luzhou 潞州. According to tradition, she cut off her own arm to inspire donations for the carving of the canon. Before 1149, an organisation known as the "Society for carving the Tripiṭaka blocks" (Kaidiao dazangjing ban hui 開雕大藏經版會) was established at Tianning Monastery to oversee the project. The carving was completed in 1173. After the canon was finished, Fazhen presented a printed set to the Jin government. It received the attention of Emperor Shizong 金世宗 (r. 1161-1189), who arranged for her to receive full bhikṣuṇī (nun's) ordination at Sheng'an Monastery 聖安寺. In 1181, she again brought the printing blocks to the capital for printing and wider distribution. The original carved format of the Zhaocheng Canon, aside from slight adjustments in its arrangement according to the Qianziwen, is essentially a reprint of the Kaibao Canon. It also adopts the juan format, with each printing block containing 23 lines and each line comprising 14 characters. Since both the original Kaibao Canon and its other major reprint, the first edition of the Korean Tripitaka, have largely been lost, the Zhaocheng Canon retains the original appearance of the Kaibao Canon.
During the Mongol conquest, some of the printing blocks of the Zhaocheng Canon were destroyed in warfare. Around 1236, Yelü Chucai 耶律楚材 (1190-1244) organised a restoration effort. He mobilised officials under his jurisdiction to assist, raised funds among the populace, and summoned monks skilled in engraving from various monasteries to Hongfa Monastery 弘法寺 to recarve the missing and damaged blocks. After this restoration, the content of the Zhaocheng Canon was largely restored to its original form, comprising 682 cases and over 6,900 juan. However, the work was carried out quite hastily: the calligraphy styles are inconsistent, and the layout varies. Each block contains between 22 and 30 lines, with 14 to 27 characters per line, and a small number of codex-style (bound) scripture volumes are also mixed in. The extant Zhaocheng Canon consists of printed copies from this restored edition of 1261, totalling 4,957 juan (an additional 62 texts, amounting to 162 juan, were discovered in 1952; further scattered fascicles have since been found, bringing the total to over 5,100 juan).
Over time, due to losses and damage, additional efforts were made to recover missing parts. In 1592, the monk Wushun 悟順 of Wanshou Chan Monastery 萬壽禪寺 on Jinglin Mountain 靜林山 in Xiezhou transcribed and supplemented several fascicles. Later, in the early 1730s, with help from lay devotees, Guangsheng Monastery 廣勝寺 launched a large-scale project involving both monks and laypeople to copy and restore further missing texts. More than 200 juan of these supplementary manuscript copies remain today; they originate from these two restoration efforts. Since they were copied based on the Southern Canon of the Yongle Era (Yongle nanzang 永樂南藏, see below), their arrangement often shows inconsistencies and repetitions. After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the canon was recovered. However, due to the damp conditions inside the cave, many scrolls suffered damage. Following more than a decade of careful restoration, it was finally returned to its original condition and is now preserved in the Beijing Library.
The Qisha Canon (Qishan zang 磧砂藏) is the Buddhist Tripiṭaka produced at Yansheng Monastery 延聖院 in Qisha 磧砂 (today's Chenhu 陳湖 in Wuxian 吳縣, Jiangsu), later renamed Qisha Chan Monastery (磧砂禪寺). Woodblock carving of the canon probably began in the early 13th century, during the Southern Song period. In 1234, a catalogue was compiled and printed, covering 548 cases (han 函). After 1258, a fire at Yansheng Monastery and the imminent collapse of the Southern Song dynasty caused the carving work to be halted for about 30 years. In 1297, under the Yuan dynasty, the project was resumed under the leadership of the monk-official Guan Zhuba. The carving continued until it was finished in 1322. The completed canon consisted of 591 cases with 1,532 individual texts totalling 6,362 juan. Because the canon was compiled over many decades and was damaged by warfare and disasters, some original woodblocks were destroyed. Missing parts were replaced with texts from other scattered editions. Consequently, later printed copies include a mix of original blocks and supplementary editions carved in Yuan-period monasteries. Some copies even feature several cases reprinted from the Puning Canon (Puning zang 普寧藏, see below). Complete sets still existing (with minor losses) preserved at Kaiyuan Monastery 開元寺 and Wolong Monastery 臥龍寺 in Shaanxi were printed in 1390 and 1391 respectively, during the Ming period. Between 1931 and 1935, a nearly complete photolithographic reproduction of this canon was produced in 500 copies. Missing sections were supplemented using other editions. The reproduced Qisha Canon consists of 60 cases and 593 volumes (ce 冊).
The Puning Canon (Puning zang 普寧藏) is the Buddhist Tripiṭaka produced at Dapuning Monastery 大普寧寺 of the Baiyun Lineage 白雲宗, located on Nanshan 南山 in Yuhang 余杭, close to Hangzhou 杭州, Zhejiang. Carving of the canon began in 1277 under Emperor Shizu of the Yuan dynasty, and was completed in 1290. The canon comprises 559 cases, including 1,430 texts totalling 6,004 juan. In 1306, the monk-official Guan Zhuba selected approximately 97 esoteric scriptures (mimi jing 秘密經), amounting to 315 juan, from the canon of Hongfa Monastery 弘法寺. This source canon was itself a Yuan-period supplemented edition based on the Zhaocheng Canon after its woodblocks had been transferred to the capital Yanjing 燕京 (the Yuan-period name for Beijing). These selected esoteric texts, which were absent from southern editions of the canon, were carved and compiled into 28 additional cases, and circulated alongside the Puning Canon. Later, a further supplement was added, which included 5 esoteric ritual texts translated by the monk Śālabhadra (Ch. Shaluoba 沙囉巴), and two rare works, Baiyun Heshang chuxueji 白雲和尚初學記 and Baiyun Heshang zhengxing ji 白雲和尚正行集. The Puning Canon was essentially a re-carving based on the Yuanjue Canon. Although its page format is slightly smaller, the carving is executed with great precision, and the binding style remains simple yet elegant in an archaic manner.
The Hongfa Canon (Hongfa zang 弘法藏) is traditionally believed to have been a government-supported, scroll-format edition of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka carved during the Yuan period. However, no printed copies of this canon have survived to the present day. It is widely thought that the book catalogue Zhiyuan faba kantong zonglu 至元法寶勘同總錄, compiled between 1285 and 1287, served as the reference catalogue for the Hongfa Canon. This catalogue records 1,644 texts with a total size of 7,182 sections, making it the largest among all known Buddhist catalogues. According to the preface of this catalogue, written in 1289 by Jingfu 淨伏, abbot of Lingyin Monastery 靈隱寺, Emperor Shizu ordered a comparison between the catalogue of the "Western Regions' great teachings" (i.e., Tibetan Buddhism) and the collections of scriptures in China, checking for what was present or absent, and for the number of fascicles. This account indicates that the work mainly involved supplementing and restoring damaged or missing parts of the Zhaocheng Canon, and then carving these additions for circulation. Consequently, the idea that a distinct Hongfa Canon was carved and printed likely originated from this activity. In reality, the so-called Hongfa Canon was essentially the second revised and supplemented Yuan-era edition of the Zhaocheng Canon, rather than an entirely new canon.
Fragments of an official printed edition of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka (Guan kanben dazangjing 官刻本大藏經) from the Yuan period were discovered in 1982 in the province of Yunnan. Only 32 juan survive, which are now preserved in the Yunnan Provincial Library (Yunnan Sheng Tushuguan 雲南省圖書館). The printing blocks are larger than those of any other extant Tripiṭaka editions. Each block contains 7 half-pages, with 42 lines per block, 6 lines per half-page, and 17 characters per line. The line spacing is relatively open and clear. Each page is framed with double border lines. The format is that of a folded (accordion-style) book. The surviving fascicles include a dedicatory inscription, dated to 1336, and a list of 2,323 individuals, including monk-preachers, monks, and lay supporters, and an additional list recording 38 participants involved in the carving of the canon, including their official titles. The lists are arranged from left to right, reflecting the use of writing among the northern peoples. It is estimated that the complete canon originally comprised at least 651 cases with more than 6,500 juan. In terms of content, it was second only to the Zhaocheng Canon.
The Southern Canon of the Hongwu Era (Hongwu nanzang 洪武南藏) is the earliest among the three official printed canons produced during the Ming period. It is also known as the First Southern Canon (Chuke nanzang 初刻南藏), contrasting it with the Southern Yongle Canon (see below). In 1372, the fifth year of the Hongwu reign-era 洪武 (1368-1398), an imperial decree ordered the collation and proofreading of the canon at Jiangshan Temple 蔣山寺 in the then-capital Jinling 金陵 (present-day Nanjing 南京, Jiangsu). The carving of the woodblocks was completed in 1398. The canon consisted of 678 cases, comprising 1,600 texts in more than 7,000 juan. In 1408, it was destroyed by fire. The only surviving printed copy was not discovered until 1934, at Shanggu Temple 上古寺 in Chongqing County 崇慶, Sichuan Province. It is incomplete and also contains a mixture of later manuscript supplements and privately printed editions.
The Southern Canon of the Yongle Era (Yongle nanzang 永樂南藏) is a recarved edition produced during the Yongle reign-period 永樂 (1403-1424) of the Ming dynasty, based on the Southern Hongwu Canon, with some changes in arrangement. The woodblocks numbered 57,160. The complete canon consisted of 636 cases, comprising 1,610 texts in 6,331 juan. The woodblocks were stored at Bao'en Temple 報恩寺 in Nanjing. Printing required official approval from the Ministry of Rites, and temples throughout the country could request copies. On average, about 20 complete sets were printed each year, resulting in relatively wide circulation of copies. Although this canon was recarved based on the Southern Hongwu Canon, the calligraphy and engraving were inferior in neatness and craftsmanship compared to the earlier edition.
With the transfer of the capital from Nanjing to Beijing in the north, the Northern Yongle Canon (Yongle beizang 永樂北藏) was carved in 1421 and completed in 1440. The complete canon consisted of 636 cases, comprising 1,621 texts in 6,361 juan. Large numbers of copies were printed and distributed to major temples across the country. Later, in 1584, additional works from various Buddhist schools were carved: 36 titles in 41 cases, totalling 410 juan, which were incorporated into this canon. In addition, 4 texts and catalogues from the Southern Yongle Canon were appended, making a total of 5 works in 16 cases and 153 juan. This edition also introduced changes to the traditional format of accordion-fold (concertina) printed canons: the typeface and page layout were enlarged, each block containing 25 lines (across 5½ pages), with 17 characters per line.
The Wulin Canon (Wulin zang 武林藏) was carved and printed in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, during the late Yongle reign-period. It was discovered in 1982. Only 17 juan survive, comprising scattered volumes from 9 different scriptures. The layout features 30 lines per block; each fold contains 5½ pages, with 6 lines per half-page and 17 characters per line. At the end of two fascicles, images of the monastery guardian Skanda (Ch. Weituo 韋陀) are engraved. One juan also includes a pasted frontispiece illustration of Śākyamuni Buddha preaching, similar to the frontispiece found in the Qisha Canon. The calligraphy of the text is relatively larger and heavier than that of the Southern Yongle Canon. The Wulin Canon can essentially be regarded as a reproduction of the Qisha Canon and the Hongwu Canon. The canon can be dated to around 1422.
The Wanli Canon (Wanli zang 萬曆藏) is, despite its name, a privately produced edition of the Buddhist canon, carved during the Wanli reign-period 萬曆 (1573-1619), approximately between 1589 and 1657. It was originally housed at Jinshan Temple 金山寺 in Quanzhou 全州, Guangxi, but it was later transferred to Yanqing Temple 延慶寺 in Ningwu 寧武, Shanxi. In 1979, it was moved again to the Ningwu County Cultural Center (Ningwu Xian Wenhuaguan 寧武縣文化館). The canon is a relatively complete and previously unrecorded edition. The full collection consisted of 678 cases, containing 1,659 works across the categories of sūtras, vinayas, śāstras, collections, and biographies, totalling 6,234 juan. Currently, 660 cases survive, comprising 1,563 works in 5,997 juan. Detailed comparison shows that this edition is a recarved reproduction of the Southern Yongle Canon. It was sponsored by Lady Wang 王氏, a consort of the Prince of Hui 惠敬王 (1594-1646), who initiated the reprinting. Prominent Ming officials such as Lu Guangzu 陸光祖, Qian Qianyi 錢謙益 (1582-1664), Zhou Tiancheng 周天成, and Wu Chongzong 吳崇宗 contributed to the carving.
The Jiaxing Canon (Jiaxing zang 嘉興藏) is a privately produced Buddhist canon carved and compiled during the late Ming and early Qing periods. It is also known as the Jingshan Canon (Jingshan zang 徑山藏). The project was initiated in the late Jiajing reign-period 嘉靖 (1522-1566) and was largely completed in 1579. In 1589, carving began at Mount Wutai 五臺山 in Shanxi, where more than 500 fascicles were finished within a year. Due to the cold climate there, the work was relocated to Jingshan 徑山 in Yuhang 余杭, Zhejiang, where carving continued. Later, engraving activities were spread across several locations, funded through donations. The entire project was finished in 1676, and the printing blocks were gathered at Lengyan Temple 楞嚴寺 in Jiaxing 嘉興, where printed editions were produced and circulated. The canon is divided into three parts: the Main Canon (zhengzang 正藏), the Supplement (xuzang 續藏), and the Further Supplement (you xuzang 又續藏). The main canon, with 210 cases, follows the arrangement of the Northern Yongle Canon, but includes the 5 texts (153 fascicles) unique to the Southern Yongle Canon. The supplementary canon, with 95 cases, contains 248 non-canonical works, totalling about 3,800 juan. The Further Supplement, with 47 cases, contains an additional 318 non-canonical works, amounting to about 1,800 juan. A revision in 1677 resulted in a final count of 210 cases of the Main Canon, 90 cases of the Supplement, and 43 cases of the Further Supplement, totaling 2,090 works in more than 12,600 juan. This canon is notable not only for replacing the traditional accordion-fold (concertina) format of Buddhist scriptures with a more portable thread-bound book format but also for its extensive inclusion of extra-canonical writings such as commentaries (shushi 疏釋), ritual manuals (chenyi 懺儀), and recorded sayings (yulu 語錄).
The Dragon Canon (Longzang 龍藏) is also known as the Qing Canon (Qingzang 清藏) because it was an official imperial edition of the Tripitaka. In 1733, a Canon Bureau (zangjingguan 藏經館) was established at Xianliang Temple 賢良寺 in Beijing. The project was overseen by Prince Yūn Lu (Ch. Yunlu 允祿, 1695-1767), Prince Hūng Jeo (Ch. Hongzhou 弘晝, 1712-1770), and Chaosheng 超聖, the abbot of Xianliang Temple. Block carving began in 1735 and was completed in 1738, using a total of 79,036 woodblocks. The complete canon consists of 724 cases, containing 1,669 works in 7,168 juan. Its layout follows that of the Northern Yongle Canon. The canon is divided into two parts: the Main Canon (zhengzang 正藏) with 485 cases, which contains content identical to the Northern Yongle Canon, and the Supplement (xuzang 續藏) with 239 cases, including additions and omissions compared to the Northern Yongle Canon. A total of 100 complete sets were printed and distributed to temples in and outside the capital. In 1935, an additional 22 sets were printed. The woodblocks were originally stored in the Hall of Military Glory (Wuying Dian 武英殿) of the imperial palace and were later transferred to Bailing Temple 柏林寺, where they are still preserved today.
The Fangshan Stone Sutras (Fangshan shijing 房山石經, compare the Confucian Stone Classics) were initiated during the Sui period. A monk named Jingwan 靜琬 from Youzhou 幽州 (present-day Beijing region) undertook the project, carrying forward the vow of his teacher Huisi 慧思. The goal was to carve the entire Tripitaka onto stone slabs in the Fangshan area, to prevent destruction of Buddhist scriptures and ensure their long-term preservation. The carving of the Buddhist scriptures continues across many centuries and was only finished during the Ming period. Throughout its long history, the project received continuous donations and support from imperial families, officials, and lay Buddhist devotees. A particularly important contribution occurred in 730, when Princess Jinxian 金仙長公主 strongly supported the effort. She petitioned the court, and Emperor Xuanzong 唐玄宗 (r. 712-755) ordered that over 4,000 juan of newly and previously translated Buddhist scriptures from the Tang court be granted as master copies for engraving. These were delivered to Fangshan by the monk Zhisheng 智昇. As a result, the Fangshan Stone Sutras preserve many texts in forms very close to original Tang dynasty court manuscripts.
However, the project did not follow the systematic arrangement of a standard Tripitaka. Instead, inscriptions were often carved based on the individual wishes of donors. Consequently, widely popular scriptures, such as the Diamond Sutra (Jingangjing 金剛經) and the Heart Sutra (Xinjing 心經), were engraved repeatedly in multiple copies. Therefore, the number of scriptures carved amounts to just over 1,100 works. Some texts were only partially engraved, and a few Daoist scriptures were even included.
Thus, the Fangshan Sutras do not constitute a complete Tripitaka, but they possesses several distinctive features compared to woodblock-printed canons. The Fangshan Canon preserves more than 50 scriptures not found in other editions of the Tripitaka. The majority of the stone carvings exhibit highly refined engraving techniques and elegant calligraphy. They are not only valuable Buddhist relics but also masterpieces of Chinese calligraphy and stone carving art. Approximately 6,000 donor inscriptions (tiji 題記) are appended after the sutras, about one quarter of which are precisely dated. These inscriptions reflect the political, economic, and cultural conditions, as well as the development of commerce and industry across many prefectures of north China. Many donors were civil and military officials from successive dynasties. The titles and ranks recorded fill gaps in official historical records, or serve to corroborate existing historical accounts. The inscriptions also record the native places and residences of donors, thus providing valuable material for studying historical administrative divisions in regions, and are especially important for reconstructing the urban layout of Youzhou-Yanjing, the precursors of Beijing.
As the Chinese Tripitaka spread along with the transmission of Buddhism, it was transmitted eastward to Korea and Japan. The Korean Tripitaka (Ch. Gaoli zang 高麗藏; in Korean called Koryŏ taejanggyŏng 高麗大藏經 or P'alman taejanggyŏng 八萬大藏經 "Eighty-Thousand Canon", called so because of the 81,258 wooden printing plates carved for it), is one of the most famous East Asian Buddhist canons. According to historical records, after the completion of the Kaobao Canon, during the Jinggong era 靖拱 (988-989) of the Northern Song dynasty, printed copies were transmitted to Koryŏ (Ch. Gaoli 高麗). Later revised editions, the Tianxi revision and the Xining revision, were also transmitted eastward in 1022 and 1083, respectively.
After receiving the early Kaibao edition, the Koryŏ kingdom undertook its own woodblock carving. This first carving of the Korean Tripitaka was completed in 1025. In addition, the Liao dynasty presented a printed copy of the Kitan Canon to the Koryŏ court in 1063. Together with the revised canons from China, and over 3,000 juan of doctrinal works included in the catalogue Xinbian zhuzong jiaozang zonglu (Sinpyŏn chujong kyojang ch'ongnok) 新編諸宗教藏總錄 (T2184) compiled by the monk Ŭich'ŏn 義天 (1055–1101), a new project was launched. This resulted in the carving of the Koryŏ sokchanggyŏng 高麗續藏經 "Supplementary Korean Tripitaka" of over 4,000 juan, at Hŭngwangsa Temple 興王寺. The blocks of both the original and supplementary editions were stored at Puinsa Temple 符仁寺. However, in 1232, all these woodblocks were destroyed during warfare, and the fate of printed copies remains unclear. Between 1236 and 1251, the Korean Tripitaka was recarved once again based on surviving printed editions. This is the version that survives today. It was originally housed at Sŏnwŏnsa Temple 禪源寺, later moved in 1398 to Chich'ŏnsa Temple 支天寺, and in the following year transferred to Haeinsa Temple 海印寺, where it remains preserved.
From these woodblocks, about 50 complete printed sets were produced at Haeinsa, of which four were later transmitted to Japan. In 1960, another 12 sets were reprinted, and from the 1970s onward, photographic reprints in book form were issued, with 45 volumes. In 1957, Japan XXX Verlag? produced a reduced-size hardcover edition. The complete Korea Tripitaka consists of 639 cases, arranged according to the Qianziwen, comprising 1,522 texts with a size of 6,558 juan.
The Kōan Tripitaka (Kōan zō 弘安藏) was carved in Japan approximately between the 10th year of the Kōan era (1287) and 1302. Only a very small number of printed copies have survived. Whether the project was completed as a full Tripitaka remains uncertain. The Tenkai Tripitaka (Tenkai zō 天海藏) was initiated by Tokugawa Iemitsu 德川家光 (1604-1651) and supervised by the Buddhist prelate Tenkai 天海. It was produced between 1637 and 1648 at Kan'ei-ji Temple 寬永寺 on Mount Tōei 東睿山, though some sources state it was completed in 1651. It is also known as the Kan'ei-ji edition (Kan'ei-ji zō 寬永寺藏), Tōeizan Edition (Tōeizan zō 東睿山藏), or, in China, as the Japanese Canon (Wozang 倭藏). This edition used a movable-type printing format, and was largely based on the Puning Canon, with supplementary additions and revisions. The complete canon consists of 665 cases, featuring 1,453 texts with 6,323 juan, bound in accordion-style (folded) format. However, the currently surviving catalogue records differ slightly, listing 599 cases with 1,449 texts. This discrepancy suggests that there may be errors or inconsistencies in the extant catalog records.
The Kōkyō Tripitaka (Kōkyō zō 弘教藏) was a movable-type printed edition produced by the Kōkyō Shoin 弘教書院 in Japan between 1880 and 1885. It is also known as the "Downscaled Canon" (Shukusatsu zō 縮刷藏) or the "Collated and Reduced Tripitaka" (Kōtei shukkoku daizōkyō 校訂縮刻大藏經). This edition was compiled using the classification system of Zhixu 智旭 (1599-1655) in his work Yuezang zhijin 閱藏知津, which organizes scriptures according to the Tiantai 天台 doctrine of the Five Periods (wushi panjiao 五時判教). For textual collation, it cross-checked four major Tripitaka editions. The scriptures were punctuated. The complete canon consists of 25 categories (bulei 部類), 1,916 texts in 8,538 juan, spread over 418 volumes and 40 cases, arranged according to the Qianziwen.
The Ōbaku Tripitaka ( Ōbaku zō 黃檗藏), also known as the Tetsugen Canon (Tetsugen zō 鐵眼藏), was carved in Japan between 1669 and 1678. The project was led by the monk Tetsugen Dōkō 鐵眼道光 (1630-1682) at the Hōzō Zen Monastery 寶藏禪院 on Mount Ōbaku 黃檗山 in Uji District 宇治郡, Yamashiro Province 山城州 (present-day Kyoto area). This edition was based on the Jiaxing Canon, with additional supplements, while maintaining essentially the same layout and format. The complete canon consists of 19 categories (sections), 734 cases and 1,618 texts with a total size of 7,334 juan. Later, the edition underwent two rounds of collation and revision based on the Korean Tripitaka. The woodblocks are currently preserved at Mampuku-ji Temple 萬福寺.
The Manji Revised Tripitaka (Manji shōzōkyō 卍正藏經) was edited and printed in Kyoto by the Zōkyō Shoin 藏經書院 between 1902 and 1905. It is also known as the "Tripitaka of the Zokyō Shoin" (Nihon Zōkyō Shoin zōkyō 日本藏經書院大藏經) or the "Corrected Tripitaka" (Kōtei zōkyō 校訂藏經). This edition was based on a collated version of the Ōbaku Tripitaka, and was printed using lead movable type, in traditional thread-bound book format. The complete set consists of 37 cases (including 1 case of catalogue and index) with 357 volumes. The contents are divided into four major categories sutras, vinayas, treatises, and "Writings and Commentaries" (zhuanshu 撰述). These are further organized into 18 divisions, comprising 1,622 texts with over 6,990 juan. However, shortly after the completion of printing, the publishing house suffered a fire, and most of the printed copies were destroyed. As a result, this edition is extremely rare and had very limited circulation.
The Manji Supplementary Tripitaka (Manji zoku zōkyō 卍續藏經) was likewise compiled by the Zōkyō Shoin after the completion of the Manji shōzōkyō. Under the supervision of Maeda Eun 前田慧雲 (1855-1930), and with Nakano Tatsue 中野達慧 (1871-1934) responsible for the editorial work, the project extensively collected Buddhist texts from China and Japan that had not been included in previous Tripitaka editions, compiling them into a new corpus. It is also known simply as the "Supplementary Canon" (Zokkyō 續藏) or the "Zokyō Shoin Supplementary Tripitaka" (Zokyō Shoin zoku zōkyō 藏經書院續藏經). The contents range from manuscripts and fragments of the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, Tang- and Song-period commentaries and scholastic works and lost or omitted writings from the Yuan, Ming, and Qing periods. During compilation, the project received strong support from figures such as Yan Wenhui 楊文會 (1837-1911) of the Jinling Kejing Chu 金陵刻經處, as well as from Lushan Monastery 蘆山寺 and numerous monasteries and lay Buddhists. It was printed between 1905 and 1912. The complete work includes translations and writings by over 950 individuals and 1,659 texts with 7,143 juan (plus a 5-juan general catalogue) and organised into 10 divisions and 63 categories. The Canon is structured into three series (Yibian 一編, Erbian 二編, and Erbian yi 二編乙), with a total of 151 cases, each containing 5 volumes, printed in thread-bound format, using lead movable type. However, after printing was completed, the stored copies, together with those of the Manji shōzōkyō, were destroyed in a fire, resulting in very limited circulation.
The Taishō Tripitaka, full title Taishō shinshū daizōkyō 大正新修大藏經 "Newly revised Tripitaka of the Taishō Reign-Era", is the most comprehensive modern edition of the Buddhist canon. It was initiated in 1924 (Taishō 13) in Japan by Takakusu Junjirō 高楠順次郎 (1866-1945) and Watanabe Kaigyoku 渡邊海旭 (1872-1933), who organized the publication society (Taishō Issaikyō Kankō Kai 大正一切經刊行會). The editorial and collation work was carried out by scholars such as Ono Gemmyo 小野玄妙 (1883-1939). The edition was completed and printed in 1934. The entire canon is divided into three major parts, totaling 100 volumes: The Main Canon (zhengzang 正藏) with 55 volumes, the Supplement (xuzang 續藏) with 30 volumes, and separate texts (biejuan 別卷) with 15 volumes, furthermore 12 volumes of images and 3 volumes of general catalogue. The Taishō Tripitaka contains with 3,493 texts of 13,520 juan the largest number of Buddhist works among all Tripitaka editions.
The editorial structure is uniquely organized and follows the original ideas of "baskets", with the Sūtra Piṭaka (jingzang 經藏), divided into 10 categories; the Vinaya Piṭaka (lüzang 律藏), which includes various monastic codes; the Abhidharma Piṭaka (lunzang 論藏), divided into five categories; and the section of miscellaneous texts (zazang 雜藏), which includes eight categories. The Supplement (Xuzang 續藏) contains ancient and doubtful texts, especially Dunhuang 敦煌 manuscripts and apocryphal works, yet the most substantial part includes Japanese scholastic writings, commentaries and sectarian texts, as well as Siddhaṃ (Ch. Xitan 悉曇) studies, written in a peculiar script. The volumes of the Image Section (Tuxiang 圖像) includes famous Buddhist paintings preserved in Japanese temples, esoteric Buddhist deities and various mandala diagrams. The Catalog Section (Zongmu 總目) contains 77 catalogue and reference works, including catalogs of Chinese Tripitaka editions throughout history catalogues of manuscripts and printed canons held in Japanese temples and concordances, general catalogs, indexes, and bibliographies.
The Taishō Tripitaka is highly practical and widely used in modern Buddhist studies. However, its collation work is sometimes rough, and there are numerous typographical and textual errors.
The Chinese Tripiṭaka (Zhonghua dazangjing 中華大藏經) is projected to include more than 4,200 unique scriptures preserved in successive editions of the canon throughout history, totalling over 23,000 juan. It is divided into two parts, the main collection and the supplementary collection (Zhengbian 正編, Xubian 續編), bound into 220 volumes. Between 1984 and 1987, more than 20 volumes had already been published. The main collection is based on the Zhaocheng Canon, following its cataloging system arranged according to the Qianziwen, and is reproduced in facsimile. Missing portions are supplemented using the Korean Tripitaka. At the same time, unique scriptures and treatises from various historical canons that are incorporated into the collection according to their content. The supplementary collection includes scriptures from the Fangshan Stone Sutras (excluding those already included in the main collection), the Puhui Canon, the Pingjia Canon, the Taishō Tripitaka, the Jiaxing Supplementary Canon, and the Manji Supplementary Tripiṭaka. To facilitate searching and reference, seven types of indexes are included.