Niepanjing 涅槃經

Daban niepan jing 大般涅槃經, the Mahā-parinirvāṇa-sūtra, also known as Daben niepan jin 大本涅槃經, Da niepan jing 大涅槃經 "Great Nirvana Sutra" or Niepanjing 涅槃經 "Nirvana Sutra", is a central text in the corpus of Buddhist texts in China and East Asia.

The Chinese standard translation was produced by Dharmakṣema (Ch. Tanwuchen 曇無讖, 385-433 or 439) of the Northern Liang kingdom 北涼 (398-439/460). It consists of 40 juan. Several earlier Chinese translations once existed but were lost early. These include the Fanban nihuan jing 梵般泥洹經 by Lokakṣema (Ch. Zhiloujiachen 支婁迦讖, 147-200), the Daban niepan jing by An Faxian 安法賢 (3rd cent.), and the Daban nihuan jing by Zhiqian 支謙 (3rd cent.), all of which are no longer extant. During the Eastern Jin period 東晉 (317-420), Faxian 法顯 (337-422) and Buddhabhadra (Ch. Fotuobatuoluo 佛陀跋陀羅, 359-429) translated the Daban nihuan jing, a version that roughly corresponds to the first ten juan of Dharmakṣema's version. In the Liu-Song empire 劉宋 (420-479), Huiyan 慧嚴, Huiguan 慧觀, and Xie Lingyun 謝靈運 (385-433) expanded and reorganised Dharmakṣema's text. The result was a revised edition of 25 chapters in 36 juan, titled Daban niepan jing (the so-called "Southern edition", Nanben niepan 南本涅槃), which has been fully translated into English. Fragmentary Sanskrit manuscripts of both the longer and shorter versions of the sutra have been discovered in Japan and Central Asia.

Regarding the period of composition, scholars generally believe the sutra emerged before Faxian's translation, most likely between the 3rd and 4th centuries CE (with an alternative view placing it in the 2nd-3rd centuries). This coincides with the rise of the Gupta Dynasty (c. 240-c. 579 CE), a period when Buddhism in India faced increasing marginalisation. The place of origin is generally identified as present-day Kashmir.

The sutra is divided into thirteen chapters, namely "Lifespan" (Shouming 壽命), "The Vajra Body" (Jingang shen 金剛身), "Name and merit" (Mingzi gongde 名字功德), "The Tathāgata Nature" (Rulai xing 如來性), "Questions of the Great Assembly" (Yiqie dazhong suo wen 一切大眾所問), "Manifest illness" (Xianbing 現病), "Noble practice" (Shengxing 聖行), "Pure practice" (Fanxing 梵行, i.e., brahmacarya), "Infant practice" (Ying'erxing 嬰兒行), "The Bodhisattva King of Noble Virtue Whose Radiance Universally Shines" (Guangming pianzhao gaogui dewang Pusa 光明遍照高貴德王菩薩), "The Bodhisattva Lion's Roar" (Shizi hou Pusa 師子吼菩薩), "Bodhisattva Kāśyapa" (Jiaye Pusa 迦葉菩薩), and "Kauṇḍinya" (Jiaochenru 憍陳如).

The sutra's principal teachings expound such Mahāyāna doctrines as the eternal and indestructible nature of the Buddha-body, the permanence, bliss, self, and purity of nirvāṇa, the assertion that all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature, and the claim that even icchantikas (yichanti 一闡提, non-believers), as well as śrāvakas (shengwen 聲聞, disciples, listeners) and pratyekabuddhas 辟支佛 (silent Buddhas, who do not spread their insights into enlightenment), are capable of attaining Buddhahood.

Doctrinally, its teachings show considerable affinity with the ideas of the Mahāsāṃghika School (Ch. Mokesengqi bu 摩訶僧祇部 or Dazhong bu 大眾部) of early Buddhist thought, and they also align in important respects with the central doctrines of the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras (see Da bore jing 大般若經) and the Lotus Sutra. The sutra furthermore frequently cites and draws upon certain doctrinal principles of the Avatamsaka Sutra, reflecting a close congruence of thought between the two texts.

The Nirvana Sutra does not appear to have circulated widely in India, but after its transmission to China, it exerted an exceptional influence. Based on Faxian's translation, Daosheng 道生 (355-434) analysed its doctrinal meaning and advanced the thesis that even non-believers can attain Buddhahood. This view provoked fierce opposition from conservative scholars who adhered rigidly to standard textual interpretations. Yet in southern China, within the Liu-Song empire, it gradually gained popularity. Subsequently, Daosheng lectured extensively on the Nirvana Sutra at Mount Lu 廬山, advocating the doctrine of sudden enlightenment (dunwu 頓悟). He became recognised as China's earliest "Nirvana specialist" (niepan shi 涅槃師). By contrast, his fellow disciple Huiguan relied on the Nirvana Sutra to argue for gradual enlightenment (jianwu 漸悟). Daosheng and Huiguan thus came to represent the two major doctrinal lineages within the Chinese Nirvana School (niepan bu 涅槃部).

Huiguan established a system of two teachings (er jiao 二教), the Sudden Teaching (dunjiao 頓教) and the Gradual Teaching (jianjiao 漸教), which unfold over five periods (wu shi 五時), known as the "Distinct teaching for the Three Vehicles" (sansheng biejiao 三乘別教), the "Shared teaching for the Three Vehicles" (sansheng tongjiao 三乘通教), the "Restrictive-and-exalting teaching" (yigyang jiao 抑揚教), the "Convergent teaching" (tonggui jiao同歸教), and the "Teaching of permanence" (changzhu jiao 常住教). Within this framework, he regarded the Nirvana Sutra as the most complete and perfected form of Buddhist teaching.

By contrast, Daosheng maintained that all teachings preached by the Buddha fall into no more than four kinds of Dharma Wheels, namely the "Dharma Wheel of wholesome purity" (shanjing falun 善淨法輪), the "Dharma Wheel of skillful means" (fangbian falun 方便法輪), the "Dharma Wheel of ultimate truth" (zhenshi fanlun 真實法輪), and the "Dharma Wheel of finality without remainder" (wuyu falun 無餘法輪). He likewise regarded the Nirvana Sutra as representing the highest and final stage of the Buddha's teaching.

During the Sui period 隋 (581-618), Zhiyi 智顗 (538-597) revised the system of the Five Periods of the Buddha's teaching (wushi jiao 五時教), comprising the Avataṃsaka Period (Huayan shi 華嚴時), the Āgama Period (Ahan shi 阿含時), the Vaipulya Period (Fangdeng shi 方等時), the Prajñā Period (Bore shi 般若時), and the Lotus–Nirvāṇa Period (Fahua niepan shi 法華涅槃時). He also developed the Tiantai classification of the Four Teachings (Tiantai sijiao 天台四教): the "Tripiṭaka Teaching" (zangjiao 藏教), the "Shared Teaching" (tongjiao 通教), the "Distinct Teaching" (biejiao 別教), and the "Perfect Teaching" (yuanjiao 圓教). Within this framework, the Nirvana Sutra was designated as part of the "Fifth-Period Teaching" and as belonging to the "Perfect Teaching".

Emperor Wu 梁武帝 (r. 502-549) of the Liang dynasty 梁 (502-557), an ardent supporter of Buddhism, personally lectured on this sutra and authored works such as the Niepan jiangshu 涅槃講疏 and the Niepan yishu 涅槃義疏. He also composed an essay against the consumption of alcohol and meat, Duan jiurou wen 斷酒肉文. This event marked the beginning of vegetarianism among Chinese monks and nuns.

The most important commentaries on the Nirvana Sutra are Niepanlun 涅槃論 by Vasubandhu (Ch. Shiguan 世親), translated by Bodhidharma (Ch. Putidamo 菩提達摩), Paramārtha's (Ch. Zhendi 真諦, 499-569) Niepanjing benyou jinwu jie lun 涅槃經本有今無偈論, Baoliang's 寶亮 (fl. 509) "collected commentaries" Daban niepan jing jijie 大般涅槃經集解, Huiyuan's 慧遠 (334-416) Niepanjing yiji 涅槃經義記, Jizang's 吉藏 (549-623) Niepanjing youyi 涅槃經游意, Guanding's 灌頂 Niepanjing xuanyi 涅槃經玄義 and Niepanjing shu 涅槃經疏, Fabao's 法寶 Niepanjing lüeshu 涅槃經略疏, Daoxian's 道暹 Da niepan jing xuanyi wenju 大涅槃經玄義文句 and Da niepan jing shu siji 大涅槃經疏私記, Xingman's 行滿 Niepanjing shu siji 涅槃經疏私記, Zhiyuan's 智圓 (976-1022) Niepan jing zhiding shuke 涅槃經治定疏科, Niepan xuanyi fayuan jiyao 涅槃玄義發源機要 and Niepanjing shu sande zhigui 涅槃經疏三德指歸 and Jingting's 淨挺 (1615-1684) Niepanjing mohou ju 涅槃經末後句. In the Korean state of Silla 新羅, Wŏnhyo 元曉 (617-686) wrote the Niepanjing zongyao 涅槃經宗要 (Korean reading Yŏlban-kyŏng chongyo).